Constitutional Assessment of Untrue Statements of Fact. Disinformation Campaigns, Controlled Public Discourse, and Filter Bubbles as Threats to the Democratic Public Sphere

Constitutional Theoretical Approaches from Milton's Pursuit of Truth to the Rest

Auteurs

  • Tamás Klein Budapest Metropolitan University, Institute of Social Sciences and International Studies

DOI :

https://doi.org/10.46522/S.2025.02.1

Mots-clés :

Disinformation, Fake News, Untrue Statements of Fact, Freedom of Speech, Constitutional Law

Résumé

In his "Areopagitica", John Milton passionately argued that even false statements of fact—lies—play a constitutive role in the discovery of “truth.” This functionalist perspective has, for centuries, served as a cornerstone in the constitutional justification of freedom of speech. Echoing this tradition, the U.S. Supreme Court, several European constitutional courts, and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) have all consistently affirmed that the scope of freedom of speech generally extends to untrue statements of fact as well. However, the twenty-first-century platform society presents novel challenges to this long-standing constitutional principle of content-neutral protection. Disinformation campaigns of growing magnitude undeniably distort the healthy structure of democratic public discourse and influence democratic procedures. The constitutional question posed is straightforward: Can untrue speech be restricted in defense of democracy, or would such limitations unjustifiably compromise long-standing democratic achievements? And if demonstrable harm does exist, is the constitutional challenge it poses genuine or merely apparent?

Références

BAKER, Edwin C., 1989. Human Liberty and Freedom of Speech, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

BÁN-FORGÁCS, Nóra, 2024. A horizontális hatály kiépülésének buktatói az adatvédelmi ombudsman jogfejlesztő tevékenységében [The pitfalls of establishing horizontal effect in the legal development activities of the data protection ombudsman], Glossa Iuridica, Vol. 11. no. 3-4. 255-274.

BORK, Robert H., 1971. Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems, Indiana Law Journal, 1971. (Vol. 47) 1.

CHRONOWSKI, Nóra, 2014. Az Európai Unió Alapjogi Chartája hatályának kiterjesztéséről –alkotmánypolitikai megfontolások [On extending the scope of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union – constitutional policy considerations]. In: BLUTMAN, László and HOMOKI-NAGY, Mária (eds): Ünnepi kötet Dr. Bodnár László egyetemi tanár 70. születésnapjára [Commemorative volume for the 70th birthday of Professor Dr. László Bodnár]. Szeged: SZTE ÁJTK, 85–98.

CHRONOWSKI, Nóra, 2022. Alkotmányosság három dimenzióban [Constitutionalism in three dimensions], Budapest: MTA TK Jogtudományi Intézet.

DICEY, Albert Venn, 1959. An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 10th edn, Macmillan.

DWORKIN, Ronald, 1967. The Model of Rules, University of Chicago Law Review, 35(1), 14–46.

DWORKIN, Ronald, 1982. Law as Interpretation. Critical Inquiry, 9(1), 179–200.

DWORKIN, Ronald, 1986. Law’s Empire, Cambridge, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

DWORKIN, Ronald, 1996. Freedom’s Law: The Moral Reading of the American Constitution, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

EHRLICH, Eugen, 2017. Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law, Routledge, (originally published in 1936 by Harvard University Press).

EMERSON, Thomas I, 1970. The System of Freedom of Expression, New York: Random House.

GÁRDOS-OROSZ, Fruzsina, 2010a. Alapjogok alkalmazása a magánjogi jogvitákban az Európai Unióban és ennek lehetséges hatásai a magyar jogra [The application of fundamental rights in private law disputes in the European Union and its possible effects on Hungarian law], Állam- és Jogtudomány, 2010/3.

GÁRDOS-OROSZ, Fruzsina, 2010b. Az alkotmányjog a magánjogi jogviszonyokban [Constitutional law in private legal relations], Rendészeti Szemle, 2010/4.

GÁRDOS-OROSZ, Fruzsina, BEDŐ, Renáta, 2018. Az alapvető jogok érvényesítése a magánjogi jogviták során – az újabb alkotmányjogi gyakorlat (2014–2018) [The enforcement of fundamental rights in private litigation – recent constitutional practice (2014–2018)], Alkotmánybírósági Szemle, 2018/2.

GOSZTONYI, G., 2022. Cenzúra Arisztotelésztől a Facebookig, A közösségi media tartalomszabályozásának komplexitása [Censorship from Aristotle to Facebook, The complexity of content regulation in social media]. Budapest: Gondolat.

GOSZTONYI, Gergely, 2023. Fake news, avagy a demokratikus paradoxon [Fake news, or the democratic paradox], Budapest, NMHH.

GOSZTONYI, Gergely and Lendvai Gergely Ferenc, 2024. Deepfake és dezinformáció: Mit tehet a jog a mélyhamisítással készített álhírek ellen? [Deepfake and disinformation: What can the law do against fake news created with deepfakes?], Médiakutató, Vol. 25. no. 1. 41-49.

GOSZTONYI, Gergely, 2025. How the European Union had Tried to Tackle Fake News and Disinformation with Soft Law and what Changed with the Digital Services Act? Frontiers in Law, Vol. 3 no. 1. 102-113.

HABERMAS, Jürgen, 1984. The Theory of Communicative Action, Boston: Beacon Press.

HOHMANN, Balázs, 2023. A Digital Services Act és a Digital Markets Act termékekre és digitalis szolgáltatásokra irányuló fogyasztói jogviszonyokat érintő rendelkezései [The provisions of the Digital Services Act and the Digital Markets Act that relate to products and digital services and affect on the consumer relations], In Medias Res, 2023/2, 69–91.

HOHMANN, Balázs, 2024. A DSA és a DMA fogyasztóvédelmi irányai a békéltető testületi és hatósági jogalkalmazás tükrében, In: KOLTAY András, SZIKORA Tamás and LAPSÁNSZKY András (edit.): A vadnyugat vége? Tanulmányok az Európai Unió platformszabályozásáról [The End of the Wild West? Studies on EU platform regulation], Budapest: Orac, 133-153.

HOHMANN, Balázs, Fábián Adrián and Szőke Gergely László, 2025. The Shades of the Concept of Transparency on the Horizon of European Technology Law and Platform Regulation, Juridical Tribune-Review of Comparative and International Law, Vol. 15. no. 1. 44-62.

HOHMANN, Balázs, 2025. Emberi jogi aspektusok a DSA-ban? Jó-e, ahogy az alapvető jogokat a DSA védeni akarja? Budapest, NMHH.

HOCKING, William, 1947. Freedom of the Press: A Framework of Principle, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

HOLMES, Oliver Wendell Jr, J dissenting of Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 630 (1919).

KLEIN, Tamás, 2020. Sajtószabadság és demokrácia [Freedom of press and democracy]. Budapest: Gondolat – Dialog Campus.

KLEIN, Tamás, 2024a. A DSA alapjogvédelmi mechanizmusa mint alkotmányjogi nóvum, A magánjogviszonyokban érvényesülő horizontális alapjogvédelem legutóbbi példája [The DSA's fundamental rights protection mechanism as a constitutional novelty, The latest example of horizontal fundamental rights protection in private law relationships], In: KOLTAY, András, SZIKORA, Tamás and LAPSÁNSZKY, András (edit.): A vadnyugat vége? Tanulmányok az Európai Unió platformszabályozásáról [The End of the Wild West? Studies on EU platform regulation], Budapest: Orac, 260-294.

KLEIN, Tamás, 2024b. Új jogterület a jogtudomány horizontján? [A new “area of law” on the jurisprudential horizon?], Jogtudományi Közlöny, No. 3, 134–146.

KLEIN, Tamás, 2024c. Platform Regulation and the Protection of Fundamental Rights, Symbolon, 2024/2. 7-24.

KOLTAY, András, 2019. Az új média és a szólásszabadság, A nyilvánosság alkotmányos alapjainak újragondolása [New Media and Freedom of Expression, Rethinking the Constitutional Foundations of Publicity]. Budapest: Wolters Kluwer

KOLTAY, András, 2024. Media Freedom and the Law: The Regulation of a Common European Idea, Abingdon: Routledge.

LAWS, John, 1998. Meiklejohn, the First Amendment and the Free Speech in English Law, In. Loveland, Ian (edit.): Importing the First Amendment. Freedom of Expression in American, English and European Law, Oxford-Portland, Oregon: Hart.

MEIKLEJOHN, Alexander, 1948. Free Speech and Its Relation to Self-Government, New York: Harper & Brothers.

MEIKLEJOHN, Alexander, 1961. The First Amendment is an Absolute, The Supreme Court Review, The University of Chicago Press, 245-266.

MILL, John Stuart, 1998. On Liberty, Penguin Books (originally published in 1859, London, by John W. Parker and Son).

MÁLIK, József Zoltán, 2024. Beyond the Boundaries of Reality: Hyperreality and Post-Truth, Symbolon, 2024/2. 25-37.

MÁLIK, József Zoltán, 2025. Individual Benefit – Collective Harm. The Logic of the Prisoner’s Dilemma in Digital Discourse, Symbolon, [forthcoming].

MILTON, John, Areopagticia, (originally published in 1644, London), Cambridge University Press, 58.

MILTON, John, 2005. Paradise Lost, Libro-Trade Kereskedelmi Kft. (originally published in 1667, London, by Peter Parker under Creed Church near Aldgate).

NÉMETH, Gabriella, 2018. Az online általános szerződési feltételek normahatásának dilemmái (The dilemmas of the normative effect of online general terms and conditions), Jog – Állam – Politika, 2018/4., 137–145.

PAPP, János Tamás, 2022. A közösségi média szabályozása a demokratikus nyilvánosság védelmében [Social media regulation to protect the democratic public]. Budapest: Wolters Kluwer.

PAPP, János Tamás, 2024. Ajánlórendszerek és szűrőbuborékok, A DSA várható hatásai az algoritmusos információrendezésre [Referral systems and filter bubbles, The expected impact of DSA on algorithmic information ordering]. In: KOLTAY, András, SZIKORA, Tamás and LAPSÁNSZKY, András (edit.): A vadnyugat vége? Tanulmányok az Európai Unió platformszabályozásáról [The End of the Wild West? Studies on EU platform regulation], Budapest: Orac, 231–259.

POST, Robert C., 1995. Constitutional Domains: Democracy, Community, Management. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

SMITH, Adam, 1977. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, (originally published in 1776, London, by W. Strahan and T. Cadell).

SÓLYOM, László 1983. A személyiségi jogok elmélete [Theory of personalality rights], Budapest: Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó.

SÓLYOM, László 2001. Az alkotmánybíráskodás kezdetei Magyarországon [The Beginnings of Constitutional Adjudication in Hungary], Budapest: Osiris.

SZIKORA, Tamás, 2024. Az általános nyomon követési kötelezettség hiányának gyakorlati érvényesülése a közösségi oldalak vonatkozásában [The practical implications of the lack of a general monitoring obligation with regard to social networking sites], In. KOLTAY, András, SZIKORA, Tamás and LAPSÁNSZKY, András (edit.): A vadnyugat vége? Tanulmányok az Európai Unió platformszabályozásáról [The End of the Wild West? Studies on EU platform regulation], Budapest: Orac, 295-310.

SZUCHY, Róbert, 2017. Joint and Several Liability of Competition Law Infringers in the Legislation of Central and Eastern European Member States. in Yearbook of Antitrust and Regulatory Studies (YARS), 2017/10. 85-109.

TÖRÖK, Bernát, 2018. Szabadon szólni, demokráciában [Free speech in a democracy]. Budapest: HVG Orac.

TÖRÖK, Bernát, 2021. Az alkotmányjog horizontális hatálya? [The horizontal scope of constitutional law?], In: TÖRÖK Bernát and ZŐDI Zsolt (edit.): A mesterséges intelligencia szabályozási kérdései [Regulatory issues of artificial intelligence]. Budapest: Ludovika, 143–156.

TÖRÖK, Bernát: A szólásszabadság a közösségi platformokon és a Digital Services Act [Freedom of speech on the social platforms and Digital Services Act]. In Török Bernát and Ződi Zsolt (edit.): Az internetes platformok kora [The era of internet platforms], Budapest: Ludovika, 2022, 195–207.

TÖRÖK, Bernát, 2022. Közösségi média – társadalmi párbeszéd. Fundamentum, 2022/3., 57–61.

UDVARY, Sándor, 2007. Media Revolution. Effects of Technological Development on Freedom of Expression. In Kapa Mátyás (edit..): Studia Iuridica Caroliensia 2. Budapest: KRE ÁJK, 197–213.

ZŐDI, Zsolt, 2023a. Átláthatósági és indokolási követelmények az európai platformjogban [Transparency and justification requirements in European platform law]. In Medias Res, 2023/2., 5–24.

ZŐDI, Zsolt, 2023b. Platformjog. Elméletek és hatályos szabályok [Platform law. Theories and applicable rules]. Budapest: Ludovika, 2023.

ZŐDI, Zsolt, 2024. The Conflict of the Engineering and the Legal Mindset in the Artificial Intelligence Act, DOI:10.2139/ssrn.4928715.

LAW

European Law

Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data,and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation).

Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council f 19 October 2022. on a Single Market For Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act).

Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2022 on contestable and fair markets in the digital sector and amending Directives (EU) 2019/1937 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Digital Markets Act).

Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act).

Regulations or Proposals of States

Online Safety Act (United Kingdom)

Proposal for the Fake News Act (Romania)

Loi relative à la lutte contre la manipulation de l'information en période électorale (France)

Constitutional Court of Hungary (HCC)

/1990. (X. 31.) HCC, ABH 1991. 88.

/1992. (V.26.) HCC, ABH 1992. 167.

/1994. (VI. 24.) HCC, ABH 1994. 219.

/2000 (VI. 6.) HCC, ABH 2000. 117.

/2014. (III. 7.) HCC, ABH 2014. 135.

/2014 (IV. 18.) HCC, ABH 2014. 286.

/2017 (XII. 8.) HCC, ABH 2017. 1455.

/2017 (XII. 11.) HCC, ABH 2017. 794.

Constitutional Court of Romania (CCR)

Decision of CCR, No. 54/2004

Decision of CCR, No. 62/2007

Decision of CCR, No. 51/2022

Decision of CCR, No. 32/2024

United States of America

Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS)

Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 630 (1919)

Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 377 (1927)

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 271–272 (1964)

Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323 (1974)

United States v. Alvarez, 567 U.S. 709 (2012)

Other Courts

Ohio: Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus, 814 F.3d 466 (6th Cir. Ohio)

Minnesota: 281 Care Comm. v. Arneson, 766 F.3d 774, 786 (8th Cir. 2014)

European Court of Human Rights

Lingens v. Austria, No. 9815/82

Bladet Tromsø and Stensaas v. Norway, No. 21980/93

Thoma v. Luxembourg, No. 38432/97

Fressoz and Roire v. France, No. 29183/95

Steel and Morris v. United Kingdom, No. 68416/01

Vogt v. Germany, No. 17851/91

Téléchargements

Publiée

2026-01-10

Comment citer

Klein, T. (2026) « Constitutional Assessment of Untrue Statements of Fact. Disinformation Campaigns, Controlled Public Discourse, and Filter Bubbles as Threats to the Democratic Public Sphere: Constitutional Theoretical Approaches from Milton’s Pursuit of Truth to the Rest », Symbolon, 26(2 (49), p. 7–44. doi: 10.46522/S.2025.02.1.